In ancient India and its surrounding regions, people who studied and practiced Buddhism generally refrained from killing. Fan Ye of the Liu-Song dynasty in the Southern Dynasties provided a detailed description of India (Tianzhu) in the Book of the Later Han, “Account of the Western Regions”:
“The country of Tianzhu, also known as Shendu, lies several thousand li southeast of the Yuezhi. Its customs are similar to those of the Yuezhi, but the land is low-lying, humid, and hot. The country borders a great river. They ride elephants into battle. The people are weaker than the Yuezhi, but they follow the Buddhist path, do not engage in killing or warfare, and over time this has become their custom.”
From Shaolin one may travel to Henan; from Henan, to Luoyang; from Luoyang, one may visit the eminent monks and patriarchs of successive generations. And through these great masters, one can study the essential scriptures of Buddhism. Therefore, for those with the karmic affinity, the matter of Shaolin is a cause for diligence on the path.
For example, from Shaolin one is led to Master Lokakṣema (Zhi Loujiachan), and the scriptures he translated, such as the Prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra in 25,000 Lines (Daoxing Banruo Jing) and the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (Banzhou Sanmei Jing).
Lokakṣema (also known as Zhi Chèn) was a Buddhist monk from the Yuezhi (Kushan Empire), whose exact birth and death dates are unknown (active in the 2nd century). He came to China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, arriving in Luoyang near the end of Emperor Huan’s reign (around 167 CE), and during the reign of Emperor Ling (178–189 CE), he translated over ten Mahāyāna scriptures. He was among the earliest Western Region monks to transmit Mahāyāna Buddhism to China.
His translation of the Daoxing Banruo Jing (Prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra) laid the foundation for Prajñā studies in the Han and Jin dynasties. Since Mahāyāna teachings are fundamentally based on the concept of dependent origination and emptiness from Prajñā thought, this translation provided a path toward entering the Mahāyāna.
The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra introduced Amitābha Buddha to China, exerting great influence on Chinese Buddhism and initiating the practice of mindfulness of the Buddha (nianfo) meditation.
His translation of the Dousha Jing laid the structural groundwork for the Huayan School.
His translation activities are recorded in The Catalog of Translated Scriptures (Chu San Zang Ji Ji) and Biographies of Eminent Monks (Gao Seng Zhuan). His later life remains unknown.
Taking “Shi” (short for Shakyamuni) as a surname signifies one’s shared identity as a disciple of the Buddha. It expresses a vow of refuge in the Buddha and the aspiration to follow his path. Therefore, breaking the precepts is seen as a regression from this vow.
Nevertheless, the Ten Wheels Sutra of Kṣitigarbha records:
“Even a bhikshu who has violated the precepts should not be punished by the king.”
Beyond the ideals of monastic self-discipline and protection of the Dharma, there lies a much deeper religious rationale:
Even a transgressing monk still retains the potential to awaken ordinary beings and inspire the world.
1. The Ordained Identity Itself Holds Merit
In Buddhism, even if a bhikshu breaks precepts, as long as he maintains the outward appearance of a monastic, he still represents:
• The Sangha, one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism;
• A transmitter of the Buddha’s teachings and precepts;
• A focal point for others to generate aspiration, seek refuge, confess, or begin practice.
The scriptures emphasize:
“Many people generate bodhicitta and a mind of reverence simply by seeing a monk.”
Even if a monk personally falls into moral decline, the form of the monastic life he upholds—and the power of the Three Jewels it symbolizes—still holds the capacity to guide and influence the world, and thus should not be carelessly slandered.
For example, a monk who has violated precepts may be seen begging for alms in the marketplace. A passerby, suffering or confused, may glimpse the monk and suddenly give rise to a thought such as: “Life is impermanent” or “The monastic path is noble.”
Even a momentary wholesome thought like this plants the seed of future goodness.
What the Buddhist scriptures emphasize is precisely this: a single moment of right mindfulness can give rise to wholesome karma.
Even a flawed monk may still serve as the catalyst for such auspicious encounters.
Hence, even in moral failure, the symbolic presence of a monk and the force of the Three Jewels he embodies retain a transformative role in the world and should not be lightly dismissed or destroyed.
2. Ordinary Beings Cannot Judge the Roots of Others
The Ten Wheels Sutra of Kṣitigarbha, along with many Mahāyāna scriptures, frequently teaches:
“One should see that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, and should not harbor ill will or slander others.”
Even if a monk has broken precepts, he may have cultivated deep merit in past lives, and is merely temporarily lost in this one.
In the future, he may generate powerful bodhicitta and attain supreme enlightenment.
Therefore, we should not judge or condemn him with the limited view of ordinary beings.
A precept violation in this life may be just a small segment of an incredibly long journey through countless lifetimes.
If repentance and reform follow, enlightenment remains fully possible in the future.
This perspective reflects the essence of bodhicitta: a heart of luminous compassion that never abandons any being.
In the Sutra of the Ten Wheels of Kṣitigarbha (Dizang Shilun Jing), it is recorded that “even a monk who has violated the precepts should not be punished by the king.” Beyond the ideas of monastic self-governance and the protection of the Dharma, this teaching is grounded in a profound religious reason:
Even a monk who has broken the precepts still possesses the capacity to inspire and transform ordinary beings.
1. The Ordained Identity Itself Holds Merit
In Buddhism, even if a bhikṣu (fully ordained monk) has violated the precepts, as long as he still maintains the appearance of a renunciant, he remains:
• A representative of the Sangha, one of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha);
• A bearer of the Dharma and the Vinaya (discipline);
• A potential object of inspiration, refuge, repentance, or spiritual practice for others.
Buddhist scriptures emphasize that “many have generated the bodhicitta and arisen reverence simply upon seeing a monk.” Even if a monk has fallen from personal virtue, the form he bears and the Three Jewels he represents still exert a transformative influence on the world. Therefore, he should not be lightly reviled.
For example, a monk who has violated the precepts may be begging for alms in a marketplace. A person passing by—troubled or suffering—might, upon seeing the monk’s form, suddenly give rise to a thought like “Life is impermanent,” or “Renunciation is noble.” Even if such right thought arises for just a brief moment, it plants a virtuous seed.
The scriptures emphasize “a moment of right thought” and “wholesome mental conditions arising through interdependent causes.” Even a flawed monk can serve as the condition for such goodness to arise.
2. Ordinary People Cannot Judge the Roots of Virtue
The Sutra of the Ten Wheels of Kṣitigarbha, along with many Mahāyāna scriptures, repeatedly teaches:
“All sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, and one should not harbor ill will or slander others.”
Even if a monk violates the precepts, it may be that he planted deep virtuous roots in a past life, and is only temporarily lost in this one. In the future, he might give rise to powerful bodhicitta and attain supreme enlightenment. Thus, one should not judge, slander, or harm others based on the limited perception of an ordinary mind.
Ever since Confucius brought the I Ching (Book of Changes) into the realm of philosophy, it gradually evolved—especially by the Song and Ming dynasties—into the Yi-li (principles of the I Ching) and became the metaphysical foundation of Confucianism. Yet the I Ching was originally a book of divination. Because of its mystical elements, it also developed into systems of thought such as xiangshu (symbol and number theory) and chenwei (apocalyptic cosmology). Although both of these intellectual traditions originate from the I Ching, they diverged clearly into two distinct paths. In other words, scholars of Chinese philosophy are capable of distinguishing between them.
Although the theory of yin-yang and symbolic numerology influenced later Daoist alchemical thought, within the field of Chinese philosophy, it is still the Confucian Yi-li that remains central. As for the transformation from xiangshu into chenwei, and further into techniques like feng shui and fortune-telling, while each has its own basis, all of them rely on external forces to determine fate rather than internal moral cultivation. From the standpoint of Yi-li, this represents a descent—a kind of loss.
In today’s society, such esoteric arts have become enormously popular. Not only are ordinary people obsessed with them, but even many intellectuals eagerly pursue them. This reveals, on the one hand, a spiritual emptiness; and on the other, it shows that Confucian Yi-li has not yet been fully developed or effectively enriched people’s inner lives—thus allowing the mind to be overtaken by superstition and numerology.
All of these practices entrust fate to external forces, rather than to inner virtue. From the standpoint of Yi-li, this is a form of decline—a kind of loss.
Confucius’s interest in the I Ching was not motivated by divination itself, but rather by the textual content of the hexagrams and line statements. The I Ching originated in the Zhou dynasty as a method of divination using milfoil stalks, and was administered by court officials. At the time, court officials were the intellectual elite; as the Han Shu: Yiwenzhi (Book of Han: Bibliographical Treatise) states, “The various schools all arose from the court officials.” Thus, studying the hexagram texts allowed one to draw upon the wisdom of the ancients in addressing the relationship between Heaven’s mandate and human affairs. This was the reason Confucius chose to study the I Ching.
On the other hand, before the Spring and Autumn period, divination rituals were major state ceremonies used to determine political decisions. Divination not only influenced governance but also guided personal conduct. It served as a form of spiritual belief in antiquity. Therefore, studying the hexagram texts enabled one to understand how the divine was used as a means of moral instruction. This was the reason Confucius chose to transmit the I Ching.
—Wu Yi, born in 1939 in Qingtian, Zhejiang, is a renowned Chinese philosopher. He graduated from the Department of Chinese Literature at Taiwan Normal University and earned his PhD in philosophy from the Chinese Culture University. He served as the chair of the Department of Philosophy and Graduate Institute at the Chinese Culture University, and also taught at National Taiwan University, National Normal University, Tsinghua University, and Tunghai University. He is a lifetime honorary professor at the California Institute of Integral Studies in the United States.
On Governing the Mind（御心）
“Governing the mind” (御心), also translated as subduing or disciplining the mind, means to restrain and control mental activities.
The five sense faculties are like cattle; the five desires are like farmland. If we restrain the faculties and prevent them from becoming attached to the five desires, it is like keeping the cattle from trampling the fields.
All desires are driven by the mind. The mind is like a restless monkey or a mad elephant. To indulge such a mind is like being bitten by a venomous snake or surrounded by a raging fire. Therefore, controlling the mind is of utmost importance.
This teaching is drawn from the Sutra of the Teachings Bequeathed by the Buddha (Fo Yijiao Jing), a scripture spoken by the Buddha before his passing into Nirvana.
In Buddhism, it is believed that ultimate liberation (nirvana) usually occurs in the human realm rather than in the heavenly realms. This view is rooted in profound philosophical reasoning and practical considerations for spiritual cultivation. The following explains this from several perspectives:
1. The Human Realm: A Balance of Suffering and Joy, Most Conducive to Practice
Buddhism teaches the concept of six realms of rebirth: the heavenly beings (devas), humans, asuras (demigods), animals, hungry ghosts (pretas), and hell beings.
• The heavenly realm is too pleasurable: Heavenly beings enjoy long lifespans, immense blessings, and great comfort. Their minds are scattered, and they rarely develop renunciation (a desire to escape the cycle of rebirth). This makes diligent spiritual practice difficult.
• The hell, hungry ghost, and animal realms are too painful: Beings in these states are overwhelmed by suffering or ignorance and have little to no capacity for spiritual cultivation.
• The human realm offers a middle ground: Humans experience both joy and suffering, and through the reality of aging, illness, and death, they can deeply appreciate impermanence. This makes it easier to give rise to renunciation and the aspiration for enlightenment.
The Buddha emphasized in the scriptures:
“It is difficult to obtain a human body, difficult to hear the Dharma, and difficult to give rise to the bodhi mind.”
This is because the human realm provides both the conditions to hear the Dharma and the motivation to practice it.
2. Heavenly Beings Fall When Their Merit Is Exhausted — Liberation Eludes Them
Although heavenly realms offer immense blessings, they are not eternal:
• When heavenly beings reach the end of their lifespan, their merit is exhausted. Because they lack wisdom and renunciation, and are attached to pleasure, they are often reborn into the lower three realms.
• The Dhammapada says:
“When the five signs of decay appear in a deva, death is near.”
These include signs like their flower garlands wilting, sweat appearing in their armpits, and others. At this point, their minds are filled with fear, and it is difficult to maintain right mindfulness.
This shows that the heavenly realms are not places of liberation, but only temporary rewards.
3. The Human Body Offers the Best Opportunity for Wisdom and the Path
Buddhist practice is based on the Threefold Training: morality (śīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā).
• Humans can uphold precepts: Human societies have ethical frameworks that support moral conduct.
• Humans can learn and reflect: We have the capacity to listen to teachings and contemplate the truth.
• Humans have free will: We can choose a spiritual path.
• Humans are aware of death: This awareness of impermanence deepens our motivation for liberation.
Thus, the Saṃyukta Āgama says:
“To gain a human body is like the amount of dirt under one’s fingernail; to lose it is like the dirt of the entire earth.”
This illustrates how precious human birth truly is.
4. The Buddha Attained Enlightenment in the Human Realm
• Shakyamuni Buddha did not become enlightened in a heavenly realm, but renounced the world and attained Buddhahood while living as a human.
• Buddhism teaches that Buddhahood must be completed through the bodhisattva path and the perfections (pāramitās), and this can only be fulfilled in the human world.
This shows that enlightenment, liberation, and the realization of Buddhahood must be perfected in the human realm.
5. Scriptural Support
• Upāsakaśīla Sūtra, Volume 7:
“It is difficult to obtain a human body, difficult to hear the Dharma. Even if one gains a human body, without practicing virtuous conduct, it is a wasted opportunity with no benefit.”
• Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, Volume 64:
“Those who are born in the heavens, when their merit is exhausted, fall back into the three evil realms. But those in the human realm who renounce worldly life, hear the true Dharma, and cultivate wisdom, can transcend the cycle of birth and death.”
• Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Entry into the Dharma Realm Chapter:
“If one is born as a human, during a time when the Buddha is present, and has faith and understanding of the Dharma—this is the rarest of the rare.”
Conclusion
Buddhism holds that only the human realm is truly suited for spiritual cultivation and offers the greatest chance for ultimate liberation. This is not only a doctrinal position, but also a profound reflection on the conditions of existence and the human psychological and moral potential.